Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods (Ελιά και ελαιόλαδο ως λειτουργικά τρόφιμα - έκδοση στα αγγλικά)

Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods
Bioactivity, Chemistry and Processing

Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods is the first comprehensive reference on the science of olives and olive oil. While the main focus of the book is on the fruit’s renowned health-sustaining properties, it also provides an in-depth coverage of a wide range of topics of vital concern to producers and researchers, including post-harvest handling, packaging, analysis, sensory evaluation, authentication, waste product utilization, global markets, and much more.
People have been cultivating olives for more than six millennia, and olives and olive oil have been celebrated in songs and legends for their life-sustaining properties since antiquity. However, it is only within the last several decades that the unique health benefits of their consumption have become the focus of concerted scientific studies. It is now known that olives and olive oil contain an abundance of phenolic antioxidants, as well as the anti-cancer compounds such as squalene and terpenoids. This centerpiece of the Mediterranean diet has been linked to a greatly reduced risk of heart disease and lowered cancer risk. Bringing together contributions from some of the world’s foremost experts on the subject, this book: 
•    Addresses the importance of olives and olive oil for the agricultural economy and the relevance of its bioactive components to human health
•    Explores the role that olive oil plays in reducing oxidative stress in cells-a well-known risk factor in human health
•    Provides important information about new findings on olive oil and lipids which reviews the latest research
•    Explores topics of interest to producers, processors, and researchers, including the fruit’s chemical composition, processing considerations, quality control, safety, traceability, and more
Edited by two scientists world-renowned for their pioneering work on olive oil and human health, this book is an indispensable source of timely information and practical insights for agricultural and food scientists, nutritionists, dieticians, physicians, and all those with a professional interest in food, nutrition, and health.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors xiii
Preface xix
1 Olive tree history and evolution 1
Giorgos Kostelenos and Apostolos Kiritsakis
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The olive culture in the Mediterranean region 1
1.3 Evolution of the olive tree from a botanical point of view 3
1.4 A different approach 6
1.5 Conclusion 10
References 11
2 Botanical characteristics of olive trees: cultivation and growth conditions – defense mechanisms to various stressors and effects on olive growth and functional compounds 13
Eleni Tsantili, Evangelos Evangelou, and Apostolos Kiritsakis
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Botanical characteristics 15
2.3 Cultivation and growth conditions 18
2.4 Defense mechanisms against various stresses 22
2.5 Factors affecting olive growth and functional compounds 24
2.6 Conclusion 27
References 27
3 Conventional and organic cultivation and their effect on the functional composition of olive oil 35
Nikolaos Volakakis, Emmanouil Kabourakis, and Carlo Leifert
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Productivity 36
3.3 Environmental impact 36
3.4 Pesticide residues 37
3.5 Oil composition and quality 37
3.6 Conclusion 40
References 40
4 The influence of growing region and cultivar on olives and olive oil characteristics and on their functional constituents 45
Joan Tous
4.1 Introduction 45
4.2 Overview of olive orchards in some world crop areas 45
4.3 Global olive oil cultivars 53
4.4 Olive oil composition affected by genetic and environmental factors 69
4.5 Conclusion 76
Acknowledgments 76
References 76
5 Olive fruit and olive oil composition and their functional compounds 81
Fatima Paiva-Martins and Apostolos Kiritsakis
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 The olive fruit 81
5.3 Description of olive fruit and olive oil constituents 82
5.4 Olive oil 83
5.5 Pigments 88
5.6 Phenols 89
5.7 Hydrocarbons 97
5.8 Triterpenoids 98
5.9 Tocopherols 99
5.10 Aliphatic alcohols and waxes 100
5.11 Sterols 100
5.12 Flavor compounds 103
5.13 Conclusion 104
Acknowledgments 105
References 105
6 Mechanical harvesting of olives 117
Sergio Castro-Garcia and Louise Ferguson
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Fruit removal from the tree 117
6.3 Collection, cleaning, and transport of fallen fruits 120
6.4 Continuous harvesters 123
6.5 Effects on oil and fruit quality 124
6.6 Conclusion 124
References 124
7 Olive fruit harvest and processing and their effects on oil functional compounds 127
Apostolos Kiritsakis and Nick Sakellaropoulos
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Harvest time 127
7.3 Harvest techniques 129
7.4 Olive storage and transportation to the olive oil mill 130
7.5 Processing steps 131
7.6 Pressure process 136
7.7 Centrifugation process 137
7.8 Selective filtration (Sinolea) process 138
7.9 Processing systems 139
7.10 Olive fruit processing by-products and their significance 140
7.11 The effect of enzymes in olive fruit processing and oil composition 141
7.12 Effect of processing systems on olive oil quality and functional properties 141
7.13 Conclusion 142
References 142
8 Application of HACCP and traceability in olive oil mills and packaging units and their effect on quality and functionality 147
Athanasia M. Goula, Konstantinos Kiritsakis, and Apostolos Kiritsakis
8.1 Introduction 147
8.2 The basic HACCP benefits and rules 147
8.3 Description and analysis of the HACCP program in the olive oil mill 149
8.4 Application of the HACCP program in the packaging unit 159
8.5 The context of traceability 162
8.6 Traceability of olive oil 163
8.7 Legislation for olive oil traceability 164
8.8 Compositional markers of traceability 166
8.9 DNA-based markers of traceability 169
8.10 Sensory profile markers of traceability 170
8.11 Conclusion 171
References 172
9 Integrated olive mill waste (OMW) processing toward complete by-product recovery of functional components 177
Athanasia M. Goula and Dimitrios Gerasopoulos
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Characterization of olive mill waste 179
9.3 Current technologies for olive mill waste treatment 184
9.4 Recovery of functional components from olive mill waste 187
9.5 Integral recovery and revalorization of olive mill waste 194
9.6 Conclusion 197
References 197
10 Olive oil quality and its relation to the functional bioactives and their properties 205
Apostolos Kiritsakis and Fereidoon Shahidi
10.1 Introduction 205
10.2 Hydrolysis (lipolysis) 205
10.3 Oxidation 206
10.4 Prevention of olive oil autoxidation 208
10.5 Photooxidation 209
10.6 Olive oil quality evaluation with methods other than the official 211
10.7 Behavior of olive oil during frying process 212
10.8 Off flavors of olive oil 213
10.9 Factors affecting the quality of olive oil and its functional activity 214
10.10 Effect of storage on quality and functional constituents of olive oil 216
10.11 Conclusion 216
References 216
11 Optical nondestructive UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopic tools and chemometrics in the monitoring of olive oil functional compounds 221
Vasiliki Lagouri, Vasiliki Manti, and Thanasis Gimisis
11.1 Introduction: functional compounds in olive oil 221
11.2 An introduction to UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy in olive oil analysis 222
11.3 Spectroscopic regions with interest for olive oil analysis 222
11.4 The basics of chemometrics 227
11.5 Spectral preprocessing methods 228
11.6 UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy and chemometrics in monitoring olive oil functional compounds 229
11.7 UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy and chemometrics in monitoring olive oil oxidation 237
11.8 FTIR spectroscopy and chemometrics in monitoring olive oil functional compounds and antioxidant activity 240
11.9 The use of UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy in olive oil industry and trade 241
11.10 Conclusion 244
Acknowledgments 244
References 244
12 Oxidative stability and the role of minor and functional components of olive oil 249
Giuseppe Fregapane and Mar´ýa Desamparados Salvador
12.1 Introduction 249
12.2 Olive oil oxidative stability 249
12.3 Accelerated oxidative assays and shelf-life prediction 254
12.4 Stability of olive oil components: fatty acids and minor components 256
12.5 Antioxidant capacity of olive oil functional components 260
12.6 Conclusion 261
References 262
13 Chemical and sensory changes in olive oil during deep frying 267
George Siragakis and Dafni Karamanavi
13.1 Introduction 267
13.2 Alterations of chemical characteristics in frying olive oil 268
13.3 Oxidation of olive oil during frying 270
13.4 Methods for determination of polar compounds and evaluation of the quality of frying olive oil 270
13.5 Evaluation of the quality of frying olive oil 272
13.6 Prediction of oxidative stability under heating conditions 272
13.7 Impact of deep frying on olive oil compared to other oils 273
13.8 Conclusion 274
References 274
14 Olive oil packaging: recent developments 279
Michael G. Kontominas
14.1 Introduction 279
14.2 Migration aspects during packaging 279
14.3 Flavor scalping 280
14.4 Effect of packaging materials on olive oil quality 280
14.5 Conclusions 291
References 292
15 Table olives: processing, nutritional, and health implications 295
Stanley George Kailis and Apostolos Kiritsakis
15.1 Introduction 295
15.2 Olive maturation stages for table olive processing 295
15.3 Olive cultivars suitable for table olive processing 298
15.4 Factors affecting raw olive fruit for table olive processing 299
15.5 Table olive processing 301
15.6 Nutritional, health, and safety aspects of table olives 311
15.7 Quality and safety aspects relating to table olives 315
15.8 Antibiotic aspects of olive polyphenols 320
15.9 Probiotic capability of table olive products 320
15.10 Conclusion 321
References 321
16 Greek-style table olives and their functional value 325
Athena Grounta, Chrysoula C. Tassou, and Efstathios Z. Panagou
16.1 Introduction 325
16.2 Table olive processing in Greece 326
16.3 Functional value of Greek table olives 330
16.4 Conclusion 338
References 338
17 Food hazards and quality control in table olive processing with a special reference to functional compounds 343
Mohamed Rahmani
17.1 Introduction 343
17.2 Table olive processing techniques 345
17.3 New trends in table olive processing and quality control, with a special reference to functional products 347
17.4 Food safety requirements for table olives 348
17.5 Conclusion 350
References 351
18 Improving the quality of processed olives: acrylamide in Californian table olives 353
Charoenprasert Suthawan and Alyson E. Mitchell
18.1 Introduction 353
18.2 Acrylamide formation in food and potential adverse health effects 354
18.3 Regulation of acrylamide in food 359
18.4 Acrylamide levels in olive products 359
18.5 Effects of table olive processing methods on acrylamide formation 360
18.6 Methods to mitigate acrylamide levels in processed table olives 362
18.7 Conclusion 363
References 364
19 Antioxidants of olive oil, olive leaves, and their bioactivity 367
Apostolos Kiritsakis, Fereidoon Shahidi, and Charalampos Anousakis
19.1 Introduction 367
19.2 Synthetic antioxidants 368
19.3 Natural antioxidants 368
19.4 Phenols in table olives 370
19.5 Phenols and other constituents of olive leaves and other olive tree products 370
19.6 Extraction and activities of phenolics 372
19.7 Antioxidant and other properties of olive phenolics 376
19.8 Conclusion 378
References 378
20 Composition and analysis of functional components of olive leaves 383
Celia Rodrýguez-Perez, Rosa Quirantes-Pine´, Jesu´s Lozano-Sanchez, Javier Menendez, and Antonio  Segura-Carretero
20.1 Introduction 383
20.2 Qualitative and quantitative analysis of olive leaves 383
20.3 Future prospects 395
Acknowledgments 397
References 397
21 Production of phenol-enriched olive oil 401
Kostas Kiritsakis and Dimitrios Gerasopoulos
21.1 Introduction 401
21.2 Olive oil phenolic compounds and their functional properties 401
21.3 Effect of the extraction process on olive oil functional compounds 402
21.4 Enhancement of olive oil’s antioxidant content 405
21.5 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 Olives and olive oil: a Mediterranean source of polyphenols 417
Anna Tresserra-Rimbau and Rosa M. Lamuela-Ravento´s
22.1 Introduction 417
22.2 Phenolic profile of olives and olive oils 417
22.3 Analytical approaches to characterize the phenolic profile of olives and olive oils 420
22.4 Stability of polyphenols: cooking effects 421
22.5 Health effects of olive and olive oil polyphenols 423
22.6 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgments 428
References 428
23 Bioactive components from olive oil as putative epigenetic modulators 435
Tea Bilusic
23.1 Introduction 435
23.2 Epigenetics as a new scientific challenge 435
23.3 Types of epigenetic modifications 437
23.4 Environmental factors and epigenetics (the role of the diet) 439
23.5 Epigenetics and human health 443
23.6 Epigenetics and aging 444
23.7 Olive oil components as dietary epigenetic modulators 446
23.8 Conclusion 449
References 449
24 Phenolic compounds of olives and olive oil and their bioavailability 457
Turkan Mutlu Keceli, Senem Kamiloglu, and Esra Capanoglu
24.1 Introduction 457
24.2 Phenolic compounds of olives and olive oil 458
24.3 Bioavailability of olive and olive oil phenolics 460
24.4 Conclusion 467
References 467
25 Antiatherogenic properties of olive oil glycolipids 471
Haralabos C. Karantonis
25.1 Introduction 471
25.2 The role of inflammation in the development of chronic diseases 471
25.3 The role of diet in inflammation 473
25.4 PAF and its metabolism as a searching tool for functional components with
antiatherogenic activity 473
25.5 Functional components of olive oil with antiatherogenic properties 474
25.6 Conclusion 478
References 479
26 Nutritional and health aspects of olive oil and diseases 483
Elizabeth Lenart, Apostolos Kiritsakis, and Walter Willett
26.1 Introduction 483
26.2 Dietary lipids and cardiovascular disease 485
26.3 Fat intake and cancer 490
26.4 Obesity and dietary fat 494
26.5 Conclusion 495
References 496
27 Lipidomics and health: an added value to olive oil 505
Carla Ferreri and Chryssostomos Chatgilialoglu
27.1 Introduction 505
27.2 Lipidomics: an added value to olive oil 505
27.3 Membrane lipidomics and nutrilipidomics: natural oils for a healthy balance 506
27.4 Membrane as relevant site for lipidomic analysis 512
27.5 Conclusion and perspectives 517
Acknowledgments 517
References 517
28 Analysis of olive oil quality 521
Fereidoon Shahidi, Priyatharini Ambigaipalan, and Apostolos Kiritsakis
28.1 Introduction 521
28.2 Fatty acid composition and analysis 522
28.3 Measurement of oxidation 523
28.4 Determination of chlorophylls 529
28.5 Determination of phenols 530
28.6 Cold test 530
28.7 Determination of sterol content 530
28.8 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of olive oil 531
28.9 Authentication and authenticity of olive oil 531
References 531
29 Detection of extra virgin olive oil adulteration 537
Hazem Jabeur, Akram Zribi, and Mohamed Bouaziz
29.1 Introduction 537
29.2 Parameters suitable for authenticity assessment of EVOO 538
29.3 Direct authenticity assessment of EVOO 546
29.4 Conclusion 549
Acknowledgments 550
References 550
30 Authentication of olive oil based on minor components 555
Styliani Christophoridou
30.1 Introduction 555
30.2 Sterols 555
30.3 Vitamin E – tocopherols 556
30.4 Phenols 558
30.5 Volatiles 559
30.6 Olive oil pigments 560
30.7 Conclusion 562
References 562
31 New analytical trends for the measurement of phenolic substances of olive oil and olives with significant biological and functional importance related to health claims 569
Eleni Melliou, Panagiotis Diamantakos, and Prokopios Magiatis
31.1 Introduction 569
31.2 Phenolic compounds of olive oil with special importance 569
31.3 Analysis of table olives 581
31.4 Conclusion 582
References 582
32 DNA fingerprinting as a novel tool for olive and olive oil authentication, traceability, and detection of functional compounds 587
Aliki Xanthopoulou, Ioannis Ganopoulos, Irene Bosmali, Athanasios Tsaftaris, and Panagiotis Madesis
32.1 Introduction 587
32.2 DNA-based fingerprinting 588
32.3 Omics approaches in olive and detection of functional compounds 595
References 596
33 Sensory properties and evaluation of virgin olive oils 603
Emmanuel Salivaras
33.1 Introduction 603
33.2 Description and review of methodology 603
33.3 Chemistry, functionality, and technology behind senses 612
33.4 Positive sensory attributes of virgin olive oil and its consumption 623
References 624
34 International standards and legislative issues concerning olive oil and table olives and the nutritional, functional, and health claims related 629
Stylianos Koulouris
34.1 Introduction 629
34.2 The international perspective 629
34.3 Legislative approach by various countries 632
34.4 The European Union perspective 636
34.5 Nutrition and health claims related to olive oils 638
34.6 Conclusion 644
References 644
35 The functional olive oil market: marketing prospects and opportunities 647
Konstantinos Mattas and Efthimia Tsakiridou
35.1 Introduction 647
35.2 The olive oil market 647
35.3 The influence of certifications of origin and production methods in olive oil 652
35.4 Case study: survey on consumption patterns, labeling, certification, and willingness to pay for olive oil 653
35.5 Promotional strategies 654
35.6 Conclusion 656
References 657
Future Research Needs 659
Index 661