Cultivation and Diseases of Proteaceae

Cultivation and Diseases of Proteaceae
Leucadendron, Leucospermum and Protea

Proteaceae represent a prominent family of flowering plants in the Southern Hemisphere. Because of their beauty, unique appearance, and relatively long shelf life, Proteaceae cut-flowers have become a highly desirable crop for the export market. The cultivation of Proteaceae is a thriving industry that provides employment in countries where these flowers are grown, often in areas that are otherwise unproductive agriculturally. Diseases cause a loss in yield, and also limit the export of these flowers due to strict phytosanitary regulations. In this publication the fungi that cause leaf, stem and root diseases on Leucadendron, Leucospermum and Protea are treated. Data are provided pertaining to the taxonomy, identification, host range, distribution, pathogenicity, molecular characteristics and control of these pathogens. Taxonomic descriptions and illustrations are provided and keys are included to distinguish species in genera where a number of species affect Proteaceae. Disease symptoms are described and colour photographs are included. Where known, factors that affect disease epidemiology are discussed. Disease management strategies are also presented that will assist growers and advisors in making appropriate choices for reducing disease in specific areas. Information is also provided relating to crop improvement, cultivation techniques, harvesting and export considerations. Further development and expansion of this industry depends on producing and obtaining disease-free germplasm from countries where these plants are indigenous. For that reason it is important to document the fungi that occur on Proteaceae, and to establish the distribution of these fungi. These data are essential for plant quarantine services for use in risk assessments.

Contents

Section 1: Introduction
Purpose and content
Arrangement
Materials and methods
Isolation from leaf and stem samples
Isolation from wilted or chlorotic plants
Culture and microscopic characters
Voucher specimens
DNA isolation, amplification and analyses

Section 2: Proteaceae – Importance, Cultivation and Harvesting
Introduction
The cut-flower industry
Crop improvement
Genetic resources, the gene bank and sampling
Breeding programmes/cultivar development
International protea cultivar registration
Propagation of protea products
Sexual reproduction (seed)
Vegetative propagation (cuttings)
Grafting and budding
Micropropagation (tissue culture)
Cultivation
Establishment requirements
Establishment
Fertilisation
Irrigation
Training and pruning
Weed control
Flowering pot plants
Harvesting
Post-harvest
Leaf blackening and the control thereof in Protea cut flowers
Water relations
Phytosanitary regulations and export considerations
Diseases and insect pests
Global trade and the role of phytosanitary regulations
Phytosanitary measures and protea production

Section 3: Infectious Diseases

Chapter 1. Foliar Diseases
A note regarding name changes
Aureobasidium leaf spot
Aureobasidium leucospermi
Aureobasidium proteae
Batcheloromyces leaf spot
Batcheloromyces alistairii
Batcheloromyces leucadendri
Batcheloromyces leucospermi
Batcheloromyces proteae
Batcheloromyces sedgefieldii
Pathology of Batcheloromyces spp.
Botryosphaeria leaf blight and stem canker
Neofusicoccum protearum
Brunneosphaerella leaf blight
Brunneosphaerella jonkershoekensis
Brunneosphaerella nitidae
Brunneosphaerella protearum
Key to Brunneosphaerella species on Proteaceae
Calonectria leaf spot
Calonectria colhounii
Camarosporium leaf spot
Camarosporium sp.
Catenulostroma leaf spot
Catenulostroma elginense
Catenulostroma microsporum
Catenulostroma protearum
Chaetochalara leaf spot
Chaetochalara proteae
Cladophialophora leaf spot
Cladophialophora proteae
Coleophoma leaf spot
Coleophoma protea
Coleroa leaf spot
Coleroa senniana
Coniothyrium leaf spot
Coniothyrium nitidae
Coniothyrium septatum
Curreya grandicipis
Microsphaeropsis proteae
Coniozyma leaf spot
Coniozyma leucospermi
Key to Coleophoma (Co.) Coniothyrium (Cm.), Coniozyma (Ca.), Curreya (Cu.) and Microsphaeropsis (Ms.) species on Proteaceae
Diaporthe and Diplodina leaf spot
Diaporthe leucospermi
Diplodina microsperma
Didymosphaeria leaf spot
Didymosphaeria futilis
Fusicladium leaf spot
Fusicladium proteae
Harknessia leaf spot
Harknessia leucospermi
Harknessia protearum
Helicosingula leaf spot
Helicosingula leucadendri
Heteroconium leaf spot
Heteroconium neriifoliae
Lembosia “Clasterosporium” leaf spot
Lembosia proteae
Leptosphaeria leaf spot
Leptosphaeria leucadendri
Lophiostoma leaf spot
Lophiostoma fuckelii
Lophiostoma rubi
Mycosphaerella leaf spot
Mycosphaerella leucospermi
Mycosphaerella marksii
Mycosphaerella sp.
Mycosphaerella waimeana
Pallidocercospora and Pseudocercospora “Stigmina” leaf spots
Pallidocercospora holualoan
Pallidocercospora konae
Pseudocercospora californiae
Pseudocercospora leucadendri
Pseudocercospora protearum
Pseudocercospora stromatosa
Pestalotiopsis leaf spot
Pestalotiopsis protearum
Phaeophleospora leaf spot
Phaeophleospora abyssinicae
Phaeophleospora capensis
Phaeophleospora concentrica
Phaeophleospora congesta
Phaeophleospora keniensis
Phaeophleospora protearum
Key to Phaeophleospora species on Proteaceae
Phyllosticta leaf spot
Phyllosticta capitalensis
Physalospora leaf spot
Physalospora hawaiiensis
Pseudohendersonia leaf spot
Pseudohendersonia proteae
Ramularia leaf spot
Ramularia proteae
Ramularia stellenboschensis
Ramularia vizellae
Saccharata leaf tip dieback
Saccharata capensis
Saccharata intermedia
Saccharata proteae
Septoria leaf spot
Septoria grandicipis
Septoria protearum
Stictis leaf spot
Stictis leucospermi
Stilbospora leaf spot
Stilbospora proteae
Teratosphaeria leaf spot and blight
Teratosphaeria associata Teratosphaeria bellula
Teratosphaeria capensis
Teratosphaeria fibrillosa
Teratosphaeria jonkershoekensis
Teratosphaeria knoxdavesii
Teratosphaeria macowanii
Teratosphaeria maculiformis
Teratosphaeria marasasii
Teratosphaeria maxii
Teratosphaeria parva
Teratosphaeria persoonii
Teratosphaeria proteae-arboreae
Teratosphaeria wingfieldii
Teratosphaeria spp.
Key to Mycosphaerella and Teratosphaeria species on Proteaceae
Key to Mycosphaerella-like asexual morphs on Proteaceae
Uwebraunia leaf spot
Dissoconium proteae
Uwebraunia commune
Uwebraunia dekkeri
Key to Dissoconium and Uwebraunia species on Proteaceae
Verrucisporota leaf spot
Verrucisporota proteacearum
Vizella leaf spot
Vizella interrupta
Untreated taxa
Appendix
Lembosia faureae

Chapter 2. Stem, Shoot and Flower Diseases
Botrytis seedling and flower-head blight
Botrytis cinerea
Epidemiology and control
Control
Botryosphaeria stem cankers
Diplodia seriata
Lasiodiplodia theobromae
Neofusicoccum australe
Neofusicoccum kwambonambiense
Neofusicoccum parvum
Neofusicoccum protearum
Epidemiology and control
The role of environmental stress
Wound pathogens
Pathogens of Proteaceae
Disease cycle and epidemiology
Control
Key to Botryosphaeria-like species on Proteaceae
Ceratocystis canker
Ceratocystis albifundus
Colletotrichum anthracnose disease complex
Colletotrichum acutatum
Colletotrichum alienum
Colletotrichum boninense
Colletotrichum karstii
Colletotrichum nymphaeae
Colletotrichum simmondsii
Epidemiology and control
Disease cycle and epidemiology
Control
Diaporthe stem canker
Diaporthe saccarata
Elsinoë (Sphaceloma) scab disease
Elsinoë fecunda
Elsinoë leucospermi
Elsinoë proteae
Elsinoë protearum
Epidemiology and control
Disease cycle and epidemiology
Control
Species susceptibility
Economic importance
Key to Elsinoë species on Proteaceae
Epicoccum (=Phoma) brown stem canker
Epicoccum sorghi
Phloeosporella canker
Phloeosporella protearum
Pyrenophora (Drechslera) blight disease complex
Pyrenophora biseptata
Pyrenophora leucospermi
Poorly understood diseases
Rhizopus mould
Schizophyllum trunk rot
Sclerotinia dieback
Silver leaf disease

Chapter 3. Root Diseases
Armillaria root rot
Armillaria gallica
Armillaria luteobubalina
Armillaria mellea
Charcoal rot
Macrophomina phaseolina
Calonectria root rot
Calonectria pauciramosa
Fusarium wilt
Fusarium oxysporum
Fusarium spp.
Ilyonectria black foot rot
Ilyonectria capensis
Ilyonectria leucospermi
Ilyonectria macrodidyma
Ilyonectria protearum
Ilyonectria torresensis
Ilyonectria vredenhoekensis
Phytophthora root rot and sudden death disease
Phytophthora cinnamomi
Phytophthora nicotianae
Pythium root rot
Pythium vexans
Rhizoctonia root rot
Rhizoctonia solani
Poorly understood diseases
Rosellinia root rot
Rosselinia spp.
Verticillium wilt
Verticillium spp.

Chapter 4. Diseases Caused by Bacteria and Phytoplasms
Pseudomonas leaf spot
Pseudomonas syringae
Witches’ brooms

References
General Index
Host Index
Nomenclatural Novelties
Colour Plates